> Just before breakfast on the morning of March 4, Private Albert Gitchell of the U.S. Army reports to the hospital at Fort Riley, Kansas, complaining of the cold-like symptoms of sore throat, fever and headache. Soon after, over 100 of his fellow soldiers had reported similar symptoms, marking what are believed to be the first cases in the historic influenza pandemic of 1918, later known as Spanish flu. The flu would eventually kill 675,000 Americans and an estimated 20 million to 50 million people around the world, proving to be a far deadlier force than even the First World War.
> A REPORT ON ANTIMENINGITIS VACCINATION AND OBSERVATIONS ON AGGLUTININS IN THE BLOOD OF CHRONIC MENINGOCOCCUS CARRIERS. By FREDERICK L. GATES, M.D. First Lieutenant, Medical Corps, U. S. Army. (From the Base Hospital, Fort Riley, Kansas, and The Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research, New York.) (Received for publication, July 20, 1918.) ... An officer in Group II had reacted severely to the typhoid and paratyphoid vaccinations developed a severe local and general reaction, with headache and malaise, after the first injection of 750 million cocci ... From this time on, a small number of the men in each group reported some local or general discomfort following the vaccination. The symptom most frequently mentioned was a "feverish sensation" often accompanied by headache, which was sometimes severe enough to cause loss of sleep.
> When the United States entered WWI in April 1917, the fledgling pharmaceutical industry had something they had never had before: a large supply of human test subjects. During the war years of 1918 to 1919, the U.S. Army ballooned to 6 million men, of which 2 million were sent overseas. The Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research took advantage of this new pool of human guinea pigs to conduct vaccine experiments. ... According to a 2008 National Institute of Health paper, bacterial pneumonia was the killer in a minimum of 92.7% of the autopsies of those who died of so-called “Spanish flu” between 1918 and 1919.
> Vaccination is one of the most successful immunology applications that has considerably improved human health. The DNA vaccine is a new vaccine being developed since the early 1990s. Although the DNA vaccine is promising, no human DNA vaccine has been approved to date. ... Briefly, as a DNA vaccine carrier, bacteria are divided into two major groups: non-pathogenic bacteria and attenuated pathogen bacteria. The attenuated bacteria that have been studied as the DNA vaccine carrier include Salmonella spp., Yersinia enterocolitica, Shigella spp., and Listeria monocytogenes. Pathogen bacteria target the mucous membranes as their infection route and as a result, they are suitable for mucosal administration. However, the main disadvantage includes the likelihood of causing infection, particularly in infants and immunocompromised patients.
> Just before breakfast on the morning of March 4, Private Albert Gitchell of the U.S. Army reports to the hospital at Fort Riley, Kansas, complaining of the cold-like symptoms of sore throat, fever and headache. Soon after, over 100 of his fellow soldiers had reported similar symptoms, marking what are believed to be the first cases in the historic influenza pandemic of 1918, later known as Spanish flu. The flu would eventually kill 675,000 Americans and an estimated 20 million to 50 million people around the world, proving to be a far deadlier force than even the First World War.
> A REPORT ON ANTIMENINGITIS VACCINATION AND OBSERVATIONS ON AGGLUTININS IN THE BLOOD OF CHRONIC MENINGOCOCCUS CARRIERS. By FREDERICK L. GATES, M.D. First Lieutenant, Medical Corps, U. S. Army. (From the Base Hospital, Fort Riley, Kansas, and The Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research, New York.) (Received for publication, July 20, 1918.) ... An officer in Group II had reacted severely to the typhoid and paratyphoid vaccinations developed a severe local and general reaction, with headache and malaise, after the first injection of 750 million cocci ... From this time on, a small number of the men in each group reported some local or general discomfort following the vaccination. The symptom most frequently mentioned was a "feverish sensation" often accompanied by headache, which was sometimes severe enough to cause loss of sleep.
> When the United States entered WWI in April 1917, the fledgling pharmaceutical industry had something they had never had before: a large supply of human test subjects. During the war years of 1918 to 1919, the U.S. Army ballooned to 6 million men, of which 2 million were sent overseas. The Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research took advantage of this new pool of human guinea pigs to conduct vaccine experiments. ... According to a 2008 National Institute of Health paper, bacterial pneumonia was the killer in a minimum of 92.7% of the autopsies of those who died of so-called “Spanish flu” between 1918 and 1919.
> Vaccination is one of the most successful immunology applications that has considerably improved human health. The DNA vaccine is a new vaccine being developed since the early 1990s. Although the DNA vaccine is promising, no human DNA vaccine has been approved to date. ... Briefly, as a DNA vaccine carrier, bacteria are divided into two major groups: non-pathogenic bacteria and attenuated pathogen bacteria. The attenuated bacteria that have been studied as the DNA vaccine carrier include Salmonella spp., Yersinia enterocolitica, Shigella spp., and Listeria monocytogenes. Pathogen bacteria target the mucous membranes as their infection route and as a result, they are suitable for mucosal administration. However, the main disadvantage includes the likelihood of causing infection, particularly in infants and immunocompromised patients.