
Getting to work on diversity at Google - ismavis
http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2014/05/getting-to-work-on-diversity-at-google.html
======
Torgo
So women make up 18% of new CS degrees and Google's staffed at 17%. Blacks and
hispanics make up under 5% of CS degrees and at Google they make up 3%. Close
the ticket, it's an upstream problem.

~~~
rcthompson
Well, they say they're working with "upstream" to resolve the issue:

"Among other things, since 2010 we’ve given more than $40 million to
organizations working to bring computer science education to women and girls.
And we’ve been working with historically black colleges and universities to
elevate coursework and attendance in computer science. For example, this year
Google engineer Charles Pratt was in-residence at Howard University, where he
revamped the school’s Intro to CS curriculum."

~~~
Torgo
My response was flippant, which is probably why some people have been
downvoting it, but I'm legitimately glad if they're working to make their
hiring pool more representative of the population. But at the same time, it's
hardly their fault or responsibility to "fix" it if universities just aren't
graduating people in those proportions. This came right after I'd read a PBS
article that claimed "Google finally discloses its diversity record, and it’s
not good." Then I read a breakdown of CS grads in this submission, and Google
seems to be pretty representative.

~~~
groby_b
No, it's not Google's job, but Google is in a good position to fix upstream.

One of the things you repeatedly hear from girls/young women considering CS is
that there are no role models. Sending female engineers to university events
is a small step, but it can have huge impact. In a nutshell, it's playing the
long game :)

~~~
crazypyro
Are role models in CS (and even other industries) really what drives people to
pursue the career? Just looking at my own experience, its hard to pinpoint a
"role model".

I'm curious why there is always such a huge focus on role models (is it a
grandfathered idea from the past?) and not on the herd of other problems, such
as access to tools, ease of self-learning and targeted tutorials at under-
represented demographics. I'd imagine tutorials that are targeted at doing
things that tend to be more popular with certain demographics would be more
useful than a few famous minority or women C.S. majors, but I could be wrong.

It seems dated to me, but maybe there is some strong research that correlates
to the role model idea. I'm just not seeing it.

~~~
groby_b
What swampangel already said, essentially.

It's not about having somebody you look up to all the time, but just knowing
you're not alone. It might not _sound_ like a big deal, but believe me, when
you're the only woman on a 20-person team, it gets lonely.

But I'd argue that you're correct in your judgment of famous role models,
specifically. What's needed is not the few famous ones, but knowledge that an
average person of your minority can succeed. That others like you have
travelled the path before. And famous people really don't evoke "just like me"
images for most people :)

Sidenote: please let's not have tutorials that are "targeted at doing things
that tend to be more popular with certain demographics". The intent is good,
but it inevitably leads to pinkwashing. As it turns out, women are, like men,
pretty diverse in their interests. I would assume that's true for other
minorities, too.

As for tools & self-learning: That's orthogonal to having representation/role
models. We should neglect neither. Nor traditional learning, and many other
tools to ensure success.

~~~
crazypyro
You're right about the pinkwashing. I didn't mean for it to sound as bad as it
did.

Having a much younger little sister sort of led me to that comment. I'd enjoy
if there was some way to teach her programming that she would also enjoy and
undeniably, for her, it would be something stereo-typically associated with
what young girls like (cute creatures, bright colors, etc.). Obviously girls,
just like boys, have much more diverse interests than what society sees as the
"standard", but it just seems that something targeted at stereotypical young
"girl-y" interests (forgive me for using girly and not a more descriptive
term) is missing, while there is lots of tutorials for stuff that is more
stereo-typically associated with other demographics.

Hope that explained it without coming off as sexist or discriminatory. If not,
I tried.

~~~
groby_b
No worries, I didn't take it as discriminatory (or sexist). It's hard to see
what "other" people need, and it's easy to fall into the stereotype trap :)

FWIW, I don't object to activities considered stereotypical per se. By all
means, create a "how to animate My Little Pony" workshop. Or remote controlled
sewing machines.

Just don't attach "for girls". The issue is not the activity, but associating
it with a demographic instead of letting it stand on its own. (And lest we
forget, guys suffer from the same stereotyping - it's considered uncool by
many for a guy to do anything remotely "soft and cuddly". Let's not reinforce)

I'm curious - have you asked your sister what kinds of things she would enjoy?
What programming means to her, or why she would/would not consider getting
into it?

------
heydenberk
It's {{current_year}} and people are still asking, "why does diversity
matter?"

Diversity matters for a lot of reasons. Perhaps most importantly, demographic
diversity is strongly correlated with diversity in points of view. You want
the people building your products to come from many walks of life. Remember
how Google+ had significant uptake in the rich white tech dude demographic?
Not a coincidence. If you want the best people working at your company, you
should want a group with similar demographics as the customer population, and
if you disagree with that, you either believe there is something inherent
about certain groups that makes them better or worse at these jobs, which is
plainly bigoted, or you believe that there are external social biases which
cause the discrepancies. If the latter is your belief, that's all the more
reason to work to increase diversity as a corrective to those external social
biases. Diversity also impacts the way that people see your company, which
makes attracting a diverse pool of qualified candidates easier (few people
want to be the only member of a certain demographic group) and is good for
public relations.

~~~
fiatmoney
"Diversity in points of view" is not an unalloyed good. There are significant
coordination costs associated with it.

It is also not something you get when you attempt to recruit people from the
same sources and socio-cultural milieus with the same acceptance criteria, but
of different genders and ethnicities. Hiring an ethnically diverse range of,
eg, MIT/CMU/Stanford graduates does not engender diverse viewpoints.

"If you want the best people working at your company, you should want a group
with similar demographics as the customer population". Huh. So, if most of my
sales of akvavit are to expat Finns, I should certainly not hire a German to
do my security audits. And if most of my sales of peat-optimized spades are to
the Irish market, I should certainly not contract out the manufacturing to the
great industrial base of Shenzhen. This seems rather insensible and possibly
bigoted to me.

~~~
rcthompson
> Hiring an ethnically diverse range of, eg, MIT/CMU/Stanford graduates does
> not engender diverse viewpoints.

I don't agree with that statement. At the very least, everyone acknowledges
that women and men in the same environment have vastly different viewpoints
from each other. (Source: Approx. 50% of all jokes, also science) I think that
ethnic diversity will also result in more diverse viewpoints, even when passed
through "purifying filters" such as elite college acceptance standards.

~~~
hueving
>At the very least, everyone acknowledges that women and men in the same
environment have vastly different viewpoints from each other.

That's a pretty prejudiced statement. I have not observed this at all when it
comes to work-related items, which is what is relevant in the workplace.

~~~
rcthompson
Well, maybe I didn't phrase it very well. What I mean is that in my
experience, women consistently bring unexpected perspectives to my attention
that are attributable to the differences in life experience between men and
women in the same society, even in subjects and areas where I wouldn't expect
these differences to be relevant. So I definitely see the benefit of having a
more balanced ratio of men and women in the workplace, regardless of what the
work consists of.

------
nl
Are these diversity numbers for the US or for Google as a whole?

If they are world-wide, I find it quite interesting how closely the location
of the Google offices where software development occurs[1] matches the
ethnicity numbers.

Notably, there is only one development office in Latin America (and none in
Spain/Portugal), and the only development office in the Middle East or Africa
is Tel Aviv (not clear what ethnicity the workers there would class themselves
as).

I'm not aware of any world-class Computer Science programs in Africa. There
are some decent ones in South Africa, Nigeria and Kenya, but increasing the
number would be a problem worth tackling.

[1]
[https://www.google.com.au/about/careers/teams/engineering/sw...](https://www.google.com.au/about/careers/teams/engineering/swe/)

~~~
cbhl
Race is US, Gender is Worldwide.

~~~
nl
Interesting.. my point is pretty valid then.

~~~
nl
(err. Actually this means there is no evidence for my point one way or
another. Too late to delete though.)

------
buyx
As a person who comes from a place where there has always been an unhealthy
obsession with demographic classification (South Africa), I'm curious about
the "Asian" classification, which seems even more worthless than the average
racial classification. Does it encompass both South Asians and Chinese? Do
they have a common "Asian experience" in the US? Does the average person whose
ancestors came from Tehran have much in common with someone from Beijing?

~~~
dmm
I think I get what you're saying. The continent of Africa contains more human
(genetic) diversity than the rest of the world combined, yet almost everyone
from it would be classified as "Black".

~~~
buyx
_The continent of Africa contains more human (genetic) diversity than the rest
of the world combined, yet almost everyone from it would be classified as
"Black"._

Interesting that you should bring that up: in South Africa under Apartheid,
the racial classification of "Black" (previously called "Bantu" and "Native")
was a person of "pure" African descent.

In post apartheid South Africa, for the purposes of redress [^] "black" means
Indian, Coloured (mixed race) and black Africans. Of course, it was found that
disproportionately Coloureds and (especially) Indians were being appointed
(they were better educated and more affluent), so there seems to be a renewed
emphasis on black Africanness... our Indian finance minister was just replaced
by a black African, which was viewed as some kind of milestone - incidentally
Julius Malema brought this up a few years ago, but it was quickly sent down
the memory hole.

There has been, in recent times the emergence of racial bomb-throwers who
claim that whites cannot be "African".

In any case, my point is that even the term "black" is not as clear-cut as we
would assume.

[^] I actually do support affirmative action in South Africa as a corrective
measure. The potential for abuse does exist, in the future - currently whites,
despite a huge amount of whining are not particularly disadvantaged. Sadly
there isn't a sunset clause, although the constitution limits reverse
discrimination to reversing the effects of past discrmination, a sunset clause
of, say 2035, after which all racial discrimination would be banned, would
have been better, in my opinion.

------
doodyhead
Although it's fairly straightforward to distinguish between gender and sexual
orientation, I disagree with these traditional US categories of ethnicity.

Take a 'White' person, for instance: is a White American the same as a White
Englishman, or a White Australian? What about a White Frenchman? These are all
classified as 'White' but could potentially be vastly different in terms of
diversity.

The same argument could be made with the other ethnicities. The 'Asian'
category -- are they Chinese, Japanese, Filipino..? Or an American Asian
immigrant -- Chinese-American, etc.

If you're aiming for diversity that's representative of your customer base,
then surely your measure of ethnicity has to be more granular.

~~~
vajorie
Yes, race and ethnicity are socially constructed and are fluid.

No, however much you try to whitewash it, 70-30-3-4-5 is as shitty as it gets
outside of legalized segregation.

~~~
xienze
Whites are 78% of the US population, so being 70% of Google's population is a
pretty fair representation. Asians are over-represented though. What exactly
do you think is "fair"? I'm guessing having fewer than 50% whites at Google.

~~~
Mangalor
Why would you guess that? Clearly the non-asian minorities figures are
abominable.

~~~
xienze
Because "diversity" is code for "there's too many white people here." I highly
doubt anyone would complain about diversity if Google were 61% black (just
like no one complains about the NFL and NBA's appalling lack of diversity).

Either way, to boost non-Asian minority percentages you've got to take away
from the white or Asian percentages. Hmm... who do you think's gonna be on the
receiving end of that rebalancing?

~~~
Mangalor
The point is that in reality Google is not 61% Black. If it were, you'd have a
point.

And people do complain about lack of diversity in the NFL/NBA, on both sides.

These are such small percentages that you wouldn't even need to reduce head
count to increase representation, just hire a few more workers. But even if
they did have to replace, why are you so focused on saving every last White or
Asian soul to the detriment of addressing the problem?

~~~
xienze
> why are you so focused on saving every last White or Asian soul to the
> detriment of addressing the problem?

Because I take offense to people saying that having a majority of white
workers at a company located in a white majority country is a "problem".

~~~
Mangalor
Well, minorities take offense at having a 2-5% rate of employment in a 37%
non-White country so you can pick your problem, but don't just assume your
personal concerns trump all others.

------
Dwolb
It's great to be open and all, but they never mention what their goal is. Do
Google believe diversity is good for workplace cohesion, their own social
mobility goals, good corporate moral policy, etc.?

The data is interesting in it's own right but I don't better understand where
Google is going with diversity; I only understand where Google currently
stands.

~~~
philipwalton
As a Google employee, the reasons I hear is that we'd like the diversity of
our workforce to more accurately reflect the diversity of our users, so we can
serve them better.

~~~
enneff
As a Google employee, the reason I'd like to improve the diversity of my work
place is so I can work with more than just a bunch of white dudes. I mean,
white dudes are great and all, but I really value diversity of opinion and
experience in my life.

~~~
Omniusaspirer
Of all the places to force new perspective onto yourself the workplace just
seems like an odd choice to me. If I want to experience different cultures a
corporate office is probably the absolute worst place I can think of to do so.

~~~
enneff
Uhhh I don't want to "experience different cultures". People of other races
and genders are not weird aliens that are going to challenge me. It's not like
I'm asking to import some Ugandan field workers as colleagues. I just want to
engage with more, different kinds of people from my own society. There are a
lot of them out there.

~~~
Omniusaspirer
I didn't mean "experience different cultures" in such a literal sense, but
it's probably my own fault for wording it like I did.

Like you, I enjoy engaging with a lot of different sorts of people. I was
mostly just commenting that I've found a lot more success doing so outside the
workplace in my own personal life. Maybe it's the places I've worked? Hard to
say.

~~~
enneff
I have plenty of success interacting with different sorts of people outside
the workplace. But I spend 40-50 hours a week at my workplace, so...

------
talles
What a lovely attitude by Google to open up and show those statistics.

It's especially praiseworthy due the fact it's not a case of "look how
'diverse' we are" but more of a "let's openly discuss these numbers".

------
EduardoBautista
I don't understand why companies are obsessed with diversity just for the sake
of it.

Edit: I am mexican, and I personally wouldn't like to be hired for diversity
reasons, I would prefer to be hired on my abilities.

~~~
dragonwriter
> I am mexican, and I personally wouldn't like to be hired for diversity
> reasons, I would prefer to be hired on my abilities.

Which is all a non-sequitur, since nothing in Google's blog post or the linked
diversity website suggest that Google's approaches to improving diversity
include hiring people for diversity reasons rather than for their abilities.

~~~
roots800
Well, no one would ever admit that anyways.

------
merrua
It's tiring always being first, always being different, always being the one
who has to adapt, denying important parts of yourself just to get the chance
to do your job. It’s like being a stranger in a strange land, where you speak
the language but nobody learns yours. That's why even women who do well in
development end up leaving mid-career.
[http://www.fastcolabs.com/3008216/tracking/minding-gap-
how-y...](http://www.fastcolabs.com/3008216/tracking/minding-gap-how-your-
company-can-woo-female-coders) [You could swamp out woman with any other
minority group and it would still be true. Its much harder to stick with
something when the river flow is actively against you.]

------
bowlofpetunias
Ah, the US, where blatantly racist categorization of humans is used to prove
your not racist.

Seriously, how many other countries divide people in "black" and "white"? Or
is it even legal to do so?

~~~
jqm
Not to mention it makes less and less sense everyday. Look at how many multi-
racial people there are. Well, almost everybody really if you think about it.

------
ap22213
It's nice for Google to publish this, but their commentary is misleading.

From 2000 to 2009, 10% (48,897 / 471,318) of Computer Science undergraduate
degrees were awarded to Blacks, according to NSF ([1][2]).

[1]:
[http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind12/c2/c2s2.htm](http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind12/c2/c2s2.htm)
[2]:
[http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind12/append/c2/at02-19.xls](http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind12/append/c2/at02-19.xls)

------
Matt_Cutts
I found data (from 2012) for some other companies:
[http://money.cnn.com/interactive/technology/tech-
diversity-d...](http://money.cnn.com/interactive/technology/tech-diversity-
data/)

~~~
nl
The low proportion of Asian sales workers at Cisco is interesting.

------
steele
age diversity would be interesting as well

~~~
reddog
Indeed. I would bet my last dollar that its workforce is skewed hugely,
disproportionately young. And there are no convenient they-just-
aren't-majoring-in-CS excuses for this either. Lots of 50 year old engineers
with years of training and experience are looking for work.

~~~
skj
(approximate) ages on my team at Google: 26, 32 (me), 35, ~55, ~60, ~70.

~~~
purringmeow
Wow, a 70 year old engineer?!

~~~
Erwin
Ken Thompson is 71:
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Thompson](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Thompson)
and he still has quite a go at programming.

------
chris_mahan
True diversity is diversity of thought.

------
droopyEyelids
I'm always confused by the vagueness of these diversity PR efforts.

When you consciously want to improve something, you set goals for yourself,
and then figure out ways to meet those goals. Then people can hold you
accountable.

Google doesn't seem to have done any of that. They made a start in choosing
what they're going to measure, but I don't understand it. For example, I don't
think "Black" is an ethnicity. The differences between a black South African
and someone from Egypt is huge, let alone a third generation American.

Also, I notice Google didn't include anything about gender in their diversity
graphs, and I think everyone believes gender and sexual orientation contribute
a valuable difference in perspective. I'm curious as to why they chose to
exclude gay, transgendered, straight, and everyone in between and outside
those labels from this push.

And then, even if they define all the categories of diversity they want, how
the hell do they determine what their targets are for all the different
demographics?

~~~
xienze
"We need more diversity" is code for "we need fewer white men", but I think
you already knew that. Everyone does, that's why it doesn't have to be stated.

------
orbifold
I really don't get why gender or ethnicity should play any role at all.
Especially for jobs based on technical skill it would make a lot of sense to
select mainly for ability. It is then very likely that this would have the
same skewed distribution of ethnicities that all the 'elite' universities
have, despite affirmative action. As a white priviledged male, I feel sort of
disheartened reading that all things being equal, officially I won't be hired,
unofficially of course often it is the other way around. There are plenty of
countries that are much less diverse than the US and still have highly
successful companies, so apart from good PR I fail to see why 'working on
diversity' does have any meaningful impact.

~~~
Tyrannosaurs
From a company perspective the reason is you may well be missing out on great
talent and the great teams that research shows come with greater diversity.

I don't necessarily agree with affirmative action, but if you believe that
many of the factors which contribute towards easily measured ability
(attending a good school, work experience) may be skewed, then you presumably
also accept that there is untapped potential out there - people with the
ability to be as great but who have been in some way - fairly or otherwise -
disadvantaged.

In IT in particular, where everything changes rapidly, you want to be hiring
for potential as much as skill the candidate has today.

I don't think it's about picking someone because they're part of a minority,
it's about thinking about how you look for and judge candidates to take into
account that potential which so far hasn't been tapped.

~~~
orbifold
I agree that there is a lot of potential lost due to unequal opportunities
(for example children with poor parents, versus children with rich parents)
and peer pressure / gender stereotypes. I've studied physics and the 5% of
female students consistently were well above average for example, which
suggests that only a portion of the _extremely_ talented females even
considered studying physics.

I am not sure if an individual company can really do anything about the
factors contributing to those inequal oportunities. I feel for many skills
they come to late, the education system is really the place that should work
to reduce the amount of wasted potential.

~~~
Tyrannosaurs
I'm not suggesting that companies change the system, more that they look at
the criteria they use for recruitment to see if there are ways they can better
judge underlying potential that what grad school people went to.

------
omonra
Curious to see granularity by job type - ie engineers vs sales.

~~~
ceras
The official site breaks it down by tech/non-tech/leadership:
[http://www.google.com/diversity/at-
google.html](http://www.google.com/diversity/at-google.html)

~~~
samstokes
Interesting that non-tech is less male-dominated than tech, as expected, but
even _more_ white-dominated.

~~~
omonra
Same white, just fewer Asians.

Nothing to see here, all stereotypes confirmed :)

------
bh3244
why is diversity good? forced diversity seems very contrived. why should the
percentage of women hired be higher than the number that graduate from school
with a CS degree?

~~~
namenotrequired
>why should the percentage of women hired be higher than the number that
graduate from school with a CS degree?

No one is implying that it should. From the blog they seem to be working on
improving the latter number too.

------
marincounty
Google needs to hire a few older people who know about the Mcarthy Era, and
how Nazis used personal information against family members? And yes,
Duckduckgo is getting better each month. My love affair with Google is long
over. She taped everything I said, and will not stop stalking me.

------
ChuckMcM
When I worked there I thought they did a reasonably good job on gender,
religion, and sexual orientation but there were not enough older engineers
there. I wonder what the actual numbers are for that.

~~~
purringmeow
Burnout maybe? How long is the average work week?

------
jpatokal
This is a near-dupe of the discussion of this PBS article, which has more
data, including the tech vs non-tech breakdown:

[http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/google-discloses-
workfor...](http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/google-discloses-workforce-
diversity-data-good/)

[https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7813310](https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7813310)

------
incision
It appears the prior story on this topic got blasted off the front page [1]
for whatever reason. Here's what I had to say over there [2].

1: [http://hnrankings.info/7813310/](http://hnrankings.info/7813310/)

2:
[https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7813811](https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7813811)

------
julesbond007
I wonder how many of those minorities are working the low ends at Google...the
details of course didn't say. Also, they stopped short of saying it's the
perception and blame the facts on 'statistics'. I'm sure they have no problems
hiring cooks, janitors, etc who are minorities.

------
monkmartinez
Hispanics mentioned 4 times in this thread as of 10:23pm MST. Asian's
mentioned 18 times...

Everyone talks Black (27 mentions) and White (82 mentions).... meanwhile
Hispanic and Asian ethic groups race higher and higher in total number. [1] In
raw numbers, Hispanics are growing far faster than any ethnic group in the US.
Companies in this game for the long haul had better recognize that Hispanics
will be the dominant ethnic group in relatively short order.[2]

But who are the Hispanics? Better figure it out. It matters now and will
increasingly matter much more going forward.

[1]
[https://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/population...](https://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/population/cb13-112.html)
[2][http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/fast-growth-
latino-...](http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/fast-growth-latino-
population-blurs-traditional-u-s-racial-lines-article-1.1291138)

------
asdfologist
I'd be really curious to see the gender/ethnic breakdown of just the Google
software engineers. As it stands it's hard to make a meaningful comparison
between Google and the overall US population of CS majors.

~~~
kirkbackus
They don't have the software engineers specifically, but they have the
breakdown of the "Tech" people [http://www.google.com/diversity/at-
google.html#tab=tech](http://www.google.com/diversity/at-google.html#tab=tech)

------
darkhorn
I think that the author doesn't know the difference between race and
ethnicity.

------
EGreg
"But we’re the first to admit that Google is miles from where we want to be"

Who is "we"? And why do they want to be somewhere else?

~~~
dragonwriter
> Who is "we"?

Google.

> And why do they want to be somewhere else?

Among other reasons, because Google is employee-constrained (they have plenty
of money and plenty of things they'd like to do, but have trouble hiring
enough workers that meet their qualification standards to be able to
effectively apply the money they have to the opportunities they would like to
pursue), and the lack of the diversity in their workforce, mirroring the lack
of diversity in their qualified candidate pool -- given the absence of
evidence that there are inherent reasons for that lack of diversity --
indicates that improving social barriers that constrain their qualified
candidate pool is likely to be an effective way of making more of the people
who are innately capable of being Googlers actually able to become qualified
to be Googlers, allowing Google to hire more qualified people, allowing Google
to more effectively pursue the wide range of opportunities they would like to
pursue.

------
bothuman
If Google achieves a 51% Female 49% Male ratio, is this good? Supporters of
forced diversity are implying it is, but why?

If there is something gained by having gender X, then you are saying that
genders are not equal. If there is no difference, then why are we doing this?
Why are we basing employment on gender anyway?

I'd like to see stats regarding people looking for work who are successful and
those that are not. If a woman wants to stay at home, can we not accept her
choice? If a man wants to stay at home while the woman is breadwinner, is this
not okay too?

~~~
groby_b
Please do show me these strawmen supporters of _forced_ diversity.

> then you are saying that genders are not equal No, you're saying that their
> _life experience_ is not equal. There's no inequality in terms of ability,
> but in terms of what you know.

> I'd like to see stats regarding people looking for work who are successful

Closest proxy I can find is a study of success rate for MBAs by gender.[1] No
surprise whatsoever, women experience lower salaries and career satisfaction.
Also, women have less upward mobility into management positions.

> If a woman wants to stay at home, can we not accept her choice? The issue is
> not _wanting_ to stay at home.

> If a man wants to stay at home while the woman is breadwinner, is this not
> okay too?

Of course it is. To make that possible, we need to close the salary gap and
address glass ceiling issues.

[http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/29182...](http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/29182/0000235.pdf?sequence=1)

